Introduction to Berkeley’s Philosophy

George Berkeley was an Irish philosopher who is related to the 18th century philosophy. He is considered as the father of modern idealism. Materialism is only accepting the external world. In contrast, he emphasized the theory of immaterialism as he does not accept the material world. Among his works, An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, The Dialogues of Hylas and Philonous, De Motu are important. He was interested in metaphysics, Christianity, epistemology, perception etc. He was well-known for his subjective idealism.

Berkeley’s Epistemology

Berkeley gives the core level of his philosophy to the ‘Ideas’ which are emphasized as sensations and perceptions. According to him, only ideas are possible and they only perceive sensations. He has named mind as the creator of these ideas. Berkeley says that we cannot perceive external things but only our own perceptions and sensations. Therefore, ideas are independent. Locke has accepted the fact that ideas play the core level of his philosophy. In contrast, he has accepted matter and physical substance along with ideas. 

Basically, he combined the reality with ideas and mind and says that reality depends on the ideas. He wanted to avoid the weaknesses of Locke’s philosophy. Therefore ideas are primary for him.  We should have to have ideas in order to understand the reality. For Berkeley, matter becomes secondary and ideas become primary. The origin of these ideas has come as imprinted concepts in human organs. If not, it is originated in the mind functions. He states that, 

“It is evident to anyone who takes a survey of the objects of human knowledge, that they are either IDEAS actually imprinted on the senses; or else such as are perceived by attending to the passions and operations of the mind; or lastly, ideas formed by help of memory and imagination-either compounding, dividing, or barely representing those originally perceived in the aforesaid ways” (Berkeley, 2009, pp. Part 1, Sect.1).

For him, everything exists because of the mind. Therefore, the mind is the creator of everything. The existence of a particular object occurs only if we perceive that particular object. Then the knowledge is mind-oriented because knowledge comes through the ideas. Book, pen, tree etc and all the sensible things are ideas which are created by the mind functions or sensations. 

However, mind is a different thing rather than the ideas. Though mind is not an idea, mind consists with the ideas. Ideas have no independent nature like mind has its own independent nature. Therefore, existence of the mind is a requirement for ideas. In contrast, mind does not need any support of the ideas to exist because it has its own existence. He has said that ‘to be is to be perceived’ (Esse is percipi) which means that there is an essence of anything only if it can be perceived. Therefore, he rejects imperceptible things by saying that there is no essence of those imperceptible things. 

According to Berkeley, if something is accepted without perceptible evidences of the mind, then it should be accepted as a contradiction. However, normally people accept that sensible things have an existence in real. Scientists also accept the independent existence of the sensible things. For Berkeley, we do not perceive external things but we do perceive our own perceptions, sensations and ideas of our mind. Accepting perceptions, sensible things, and ideas which have no independent existence would make a contradiction. 

Basically, perception is a requirement for the existence of something. Berkeley sates in his book A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge by using his own words that, 

“all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth, in a word all those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world, have not any subsistence without a mind, that their BEING (ESSE) is to be perceived or known consequently so long as they are not actually perceived by me, or do not exist in my mind or that of any other CREATED SPIRIT, they must either have no existence at all, OR ELSE SUBSIST IN THE MIND OF SOME ETRENAL SPIRIT- it being perfectly unintelligible, and involving all the all the absurdity of abstraction, to attribute to any single part of them an existence independent of a spirit” (Berkeley, 2009, p. Part 1. Sect.6). 

In addition, Locke has made a distinction between primary and secondary qualities of the objects of the world in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding. He claims that, primary qualities exist inside of the object which can be defined as the body of the object and those qualities exist outside of the human perception. For Locke, secondary qualities require the support of the sense perception as they cannot exist without the mind.

Secondary qualities are connected with the act of perception of the human mind. In contrast, primary qualities exist independently regardless of the acts of perception. To illustrate, voice, smell, colors are considered as secondary qualities. Mind is aware of the copies of these primary qualities as they constructed by perceptions and sensible things. Primary qualities were belonging to either matter or substance. Although matter can be defined as inactive and imperceptible things, they are still consists with the primary qualities.

Then primary qualities should be perceivable. The main thing is not only secondary qualities but also the primary qualities should exist within the perception of the mind. Berkeley emphasized that if one accepts the existence of the independent ideas which are outside of the mind, and then there arises a contradiction. Furthermore Berkeley suggests that “extension, figure and motion are ONLY IDEAS EXISTING IN THE MIND, and that an idea can be like nothing but another idea, and that consequently neither they nor their archetypes can exist in an UNPERCEIVING substance” (Berkeley, 2009, p. Part 1 sec.9). 

He concludes the philosophical notion of matter which involves a contradiction as following. He states that, “the very notion of what is called MATTER or CORPOREAL SUBSTANCE, involves a contradiction in it” (Berkeley, 2009, p. p. Part 1 sec.9). 

In addition, “by the former they mean extension, figure, motion, rest, solidity or impenetrability, and number, by the latter they denote all other sensible qualities, as colors, sounds, taste, and so forth” (Berkeley, 2009, p. p. Part 1 sec.9). For Berkeley, it is false to accept that there are general extension and general motion. Further he claims that the above-mentioned wrong view has occurred with the abstraction which generates only the abstract general ideas and abstract ideas. He accepts the fact that says there cannot be exist abstract general ideas.

For Berkeley, the base for the existence of most abstract ideas is language. Therefore, abstractions would not exist if there are no universal signs. In the introduction of A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge Berkeley has mentioned that,

“CHIEF SOURCE OF ERROR IN ALL PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE-In order to prepare the mind of the reader for the easier conceiving what follows, it is proper to premise somewhat, by way of Introduction, concerning the nature and abuse of Language” (Berkeley, 2009, p. Intro para.6). 

Depending on the abstract ideas was considered as the prevalent error in philosophy by Berkeley. His denial of the abstract general ideas was a revolution in western philosophy because it could overcome the criticisms that were raised against empiricism. Thus, Locke’s acceptance of the existence of a priori innate ideas could overcome one challenge raised against empiricism. However, he did not go for further analysis. Locke believes that there are abstract general ideas. It was an opposition of the empirical verification in empiricism. Berkeley proved that there are no abstract things as abstract general ideas which are imperceptible. This was Berkeley’s one of the contributions that done towards the establishment of empiricism.   

Furthermore, he claims that sensations are exists with the help of the mind and therefore, every attribute exists because of the mind. Basically, sensible things like smell, voice etc do not exist without the mind and also perceptions like figure, motion cannot exist without mind. Both Locke and Berkeley have accepted perception as the way that is able to gain knowledge and as the essence of anything. Although in that sense Berkeley is considered as an empiricist, when he gave the priority to the ‘ideas’ in his philosophy it was a turning towards idealism. Basically, if something is limited to the mind, then it is defined as idealism. For that, his empiricism is considered as a radical attempt. 

Thus, Berkeley denies the existence of a material substance in his Books, namely, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge and The Dialogues of Hylas and Philonous. The Dialogues of Hylas and Philonous is basically a dialogue between Hylas and Philonous. Hylas represents the practical knowledge and scientific knowledge. Philonous represents Berkeley’s ideas. Philonous gave his conclusion by saying, though are sensible qualities, there is no material substance. Finally, Hylas accepted the above-mentioned conclusion. His ideas which were presented in both books can be summarized as following. If something is not perceivable, then no one can accept the fact that something exists. For instance, if smell, voice or motion does not captured by our senses we do not emphasize its existence. As such, only the sensible things which are perceptible can be accepted without a doubt. 

Moreover, we perceive things by senses. The sensations and perceptions are converted to ideas within mind. Though we gain sensations by perceptions, mind gets to know those perceptions only when they are converted to ideas. Therefore, we get to know only the ideas of the mind. When something is not perceivable, then it has no essence. The constant conclusion is that there cannot be essence of anything without perception. For Berkeley, perceptions are always ideas. Therefore, perceptions cannot exist outside of mind. 

Thus, substance is not a material substance because that substance does not have an existence outside of the mind. This is the point that Berkeley makes his difference from others. Berkeley was defining substance in a mental sense while other human beings and scientists are defining substance in a material sense. His explanation of substance is a revolutionary attempt because perceptible things can be undoubtedly accept. Berkeley defines the ‘concept’ as a thing which is accessed passiveness and inertness. Berkeley claims that, 

“All our ideas, sensations, notions, or the things which we perceive, by whatsoever names they may be distinguished, are visibly inactive-there is nothing of power or agency included in them. So that ONE IDEA or object of thought CANNOT PRODUCE or make ANY ALTERATION IN ANOTHER” (Berkeley, 2009, p. Part 1 Sect.25). 

Berkeley claims that extension and motion are concepts which existing within the mind and they are not the cause for sensations or perceptions. He says that “this cause cannot be any quality or idea or combination of ideas” (Ibid. Sec.26). Berkeley has mentioned that there should be a substance. However, “there is no corporeal or material substance; it remains therefore that the CAUSE OF IDEAS is an incorporeal active substance or Spirit” (Ibid. Sec.26). In contrast, ordinary people and scientists along with John Locke claim that the collection of external sensations makes a material substance and they mention it is an active substance which creates ideas within the mind. 

Furthermore, his epistemology has a radical approach. It is true to emphasize that to some extent he started his philosophy with empiricism and ended up with idealism. It cannot be stated that there is nothing existing when we cannot perceive a particular thing. However, Bertrand Russell claims that this as a fallacy of Berkeley’s philosophy. In The Dialogues of Hylas and Philonous, Hylas argued by stating that he can imagine a ‘house’ even though he is not perceiving that ‘house’. Philonous which was the character that represents Berkeley’s thoughts replies by saying if Hylas is thinking about a ‘house’, then it should be already within his mind. Therefore, mind can only perceive qualities which are called as sensible qualities. When denying sensible qualities it can be a pleasure or a sorrow. 

Furthermore, Berkeley’s philosophy is defined as a subjective idealism. It is subjective in the sense that when I perceive something that particular thing exists, is subjective from one person to another. Berkeley’s philosophy is a kind of idealism in the sense that if something is limited to the mind, then it is called idealism. However, he has used the term ‘immaterialism’ to refer his philosophy.  Subjective idealism claims that the material world does not exist. He summarized his theory to the motto ‘Esse est Percipi’ which is translated as ‘to be is to be perceived’. 

Thus, he did not describe the term ‘mental’ and even he did not give a definition for the term ‘mental’. In a context of not describing one of the main terms in his philosophy with his definition of that particular term, it is given the usual definition of the usage of language. Therefore, he could not be able to give a broad phenomenalistical explanation on the substance. Ideas are generating not because of the material substance but because of the mind. Therefore, mind should be an active one. For Berkeley, ideas are generated by a thinking agent not by an unthinking agent. He claims that, 

“When in broad daylight I open my eyes, it is not in my power to choose whether I shall see or no, or to determine what particular objects shall present themselves to my view; and so likewise as to the hearing and other senses; the ideas imprinted on them are not creatures of my will. There is THEREFORE SOME OTHER WILL OR SPIRIT that PRODUCES THEM” (Ibid. Sec.29). 

In addition, Berkeley’s philosophy is specific rather than other philosophies. He denies the existence of matter as understood by the other philosophers. He accepted the fact that there are external substances. But he claims that this substance is not a material one. Only the mind is in its active formation. According to Berkeley, “by the word spirit we mean only that which thinks, wills and perceives” (Ibid. Sec.138). He used the terms; spirit, soul, and mind to define this thinking agent. Mind is able to conceptualize things. If Berkeley accepts only the existence of the mind, them it would lead to solipsism. Solipsism accepts that the knowledge of anything outside the mind is unjustified.

Berkeley has introduced a subjective idealism. It is doubtful that he, as an empiricist, going to an idealistic approach. Still he accepts that perception as the source of gaining knowledge. Although he accepted an idealistic approach by using the mind, still perceptions should be there to construct ideas and through ideas, to construct knowledge. 

Bibliography

Berkeley, G. (2009, June 29). Gutenberg EBook. (A. Haines, Ed.) Retrieved November 22, 2018, from www.gutengerg.net: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4723 

Craig, E. (2002). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Vol. 2). London: Routledge publishers.

Kalansooriya, A. D. (2007). Nutana Batahira Darshanaya. Battaramulla: Adyapana Prakashana Departamenthuva.